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SEX AND RELIGION
For thousands of years moral questions were decided on strictly religious grounds. People knew good from bad and right from wrong because they had learned the difference from some superhuman authority. The spirits, the gods, or God commanded the proper course of action and punished any disobedience. In short, morality and religion were virtually identical. Atheistic moral systems did not appear until late in human history. They are the product of civilization.
Still, whether they were religious or not, most moral systems of the past have tried to present themselves as universally valid and therefore have claimed to be free from human influence. Not only the churches, but also authoritarian secular governments have always been strangely reluctant to accept any direct moral responsibility. While they insisted on enforcing very specific moral standards, they usually also refused to recognize them as their own. Religious moralists pointed to "the will of God" or "the intentions of nature"; atheistic moralists invoked "the logic of history", "the laws of dialectic materialism", or some other such fabulous, irresistible forces. By the same token, deviance was defined either in religious terms as "sin", "blasphemy", "idolatry", and "heresy" or in secular terms as "treason", "reactionary behavior", "subjectivism", and "bourgeois decadence". Deviant individuals had to go to confession or engage in public self-criticism. In either case, they were "reeducated" and forced to sacrifice their personal interests to some official dogma.
What we have said about morality in general is, of course, also true of sexual morality. Here again, both religious and atheistic dogmatists have usually judged human actions not by their "subjective" effects, such as pleasure, satisfaction, or happiness, but by their alleged "objective" character. Sexual behavior had to conform to some "higher" transcendental law. In some cases, this law was benevolent, broad, flexible, and sex-positive; in other cases it was oppressive, narrow, rigid, and sex-negative. In the first instance the large majority of people found sexual satisfaction. In the second instance only a small minority was able to do so; all others remained sexually frustrated in various degrees. As a result, their lives were rather nasty, bleak, and brutish. They were unhappy with themselves and intolerant of others.
We do not really know why some societies demand sexual asceticism from their members and others do not. Writers like Friedrich Engels, Sigmund Freud, and Wilhelm Reich have offered different theories about "the origin of the family, private property, and the state", "civilization and its discontents", and "the imposition of sexual morality" which try to find the causes of sexual repression in some distant past when human history somehow "took a wrong turn". However, brilliant as these theories are, they still leave most of the problem unexplained. At the present time we can be sure of only one thing: It is man himself who creates his sexual morality and therefore he also has the right to change it when it begins to threaten his well-being. Indeed, under certain circumstances this right may become his moral duty.
The following pages summarize the teachings of various past and present religions. It should be remembered, however, that modern nonreligious moral systems are just as varied in their sexual attitudes.
Historical Background
The roots of our Western civilization reach far back into antiquity. Indeed, whether we are aware of it or not, many of our present.moral convictions reflect events, circumstances, and collective experiences of times that have long since passed. For example, from ancient paganism through Judaism and Christianity, our sexual morality has been influenced by a great variety of religious beliefs. Quite often this influence was not only direct and open, but also indirect, subtle, and concealed. In many instances it persisted even after the beliefs themselves had waned or changed. It therefore appears advisable to cast at least a cursory glance at some of the most important Western religions and especially at their teachings about human sexual behavior.
Ancient Greece and Rome
Generally speaking, the ancient European civilizations had a very positive attitude toward sex. In the present context, however, we can perhaps skip over the civilizations of Northern Europe and concentrate on those in the Mediterranean region, since only the latter had any long-lasting influence on our Western morality.
In ancient Greece, sex was seen as an elementary life force, and thus all sexual impulses were accepted as basically good. Indeed, various gods and goddesses of fertility, beauty, and sexual pleasure were worshipped in special temples or on special occasions, often with orgiastic rites. The Greeks also believed that virtually all of their gods led vigorous and varied sex lives. Therefore they considered it only proper for mortals to follow this divine example.
The Greeks thought so little of sexual abstinence that their language did not even have a special word for chastity. Instead, they devoted themselves to what they called hedone, i.e., sensual pleasure in all its manifestations. However, the "hedonism" of ancient Greece was by no means a prescription for sexual license. Rather it was a cheerful enjoyment of life, a grateful appreciation of the human body and especially of its sexual functions. Pleasure was not divorced from reason, but always in harmony with it. The body was never punished or starved for the sake of the soul. Since the Greeks did not believe in a happy life after death, they felt obliged to live every moment on this earth to the fullest.
As youth and physical beauty were greatly admired, youthful bodies were not always covered with clothing, but often proudly exposed. Public nudity was common at many religious festivals, in civic processions, and in beauty contests. Young men exercised at the gymnasium (literally: the place where one is nude). Athletic competitions (including the original Olympic games) were held in the nude, although here women spectators were excluded. In Sparta, on the other hand, there were even nude wrestling matches between boys and girls. Nude male and female dancers entertained guests at parties and other festive gatherings. Temples, theaters, public squares, and private houses were decorated with statues and paintings of nude men and women. The sexual aspect of nudity was openly recognized. Many works of art, in fact, depicted sexual responses and sexual activity. The Greeks felt a constant yearning for beauty, and in their eyes nothing was more beautiful than a young, healthy, nude human body.
Greece was, of course, a male-dominated society, and, during its "golden age", the ideal of beauty was male. Although men usually felt obliged to marry and raise a family, they sought little romantic involvement with their wives. Their most noble sentiments and passionate feelings were reserved for homosexual relationships before and outside of marriage. Here again, they found support in their religion. Gods like Zeus and Apollo and demi-gods like Hercules were believed to have fallen in love with beautiful young men. There can be no doubt that for many Greeks these exalted models were a constant source of inspiration.
In classical Greece love and sexual desire were personified in the youthful, powerful, and unpredictable god Eros. He took possession of human beings according to his whim, and any resistance would not only have been sacrilegious, but hopeless. All forms of love were of divine origin and had to be respected. This basic belief explains why the Greeks were extremely tolerant in sexual matters and why there was no persecution of sexual "deviants". At any rate, most of our modern, more bizarre manifestations of human sexuality were virtually unknown. For instance, pain and pleasure were never associated, and thus sexual cruelty, "bondage and discipline", and other such practices had no chance to develop.
In this latter respect, Greece stood in sharp contrast to Rome where, especially in imperial days, sexual cruelty and brutality were fairly widespread. Eventually, sex among the Romans became much more crude, coarse, and vulgar than it had been among the Greeks. However, apart from certain eccentricities of the rich, even in Rome the general attitude toward sex was still quite reasonable and realistic.
THE EMBRACE OF EROS
(after an ancient Greek vase painting)
The Greeks saw all sexual desire as inspired by the youthful, playful, and powerful god Eros. To resist his embrace would have been not merely futile but sacrilegious.
In Rome, as in Greece, the religious beliefs originally reflected the values of an agrarian society. Farmers prayed mostly for large families, growing cattle herds, and good harvests, and the oldest religious ceremonies were fertility rites. Naturally, in the course of time many of these rites were somewhat changed and refined, but even the urban Rome of the emperors still saw various orgiastic religious celebrations and sexually licentious festivals. Fields and gardens were protected by statues of the fertility god Priapus who displayed an enormous erect penis. Artistic representations of male sex organs were also carried in processions and worn in the form of jewelry as a good luck charm.
However, like the Greeks, the Romans never regarded sex and procreation as inseparable, but accepted all types of sexual activity as divinely inspired and therefore good. Indeed, with the expansion of their empire into areas dominated by Greek culture the Romans directly adopted many Greek customs and beliefs. Thus, the Greek deities Eros and Aphrodite also began to be worshipped in Rome as Amor and Venus. The idealism and nobility of Greek homosexual love, on the other hand, seem to have been beyond the reach of most Romans. While homosexual relationships were considered normal and natural, they were hardly seen as superior. On the whole, the Roman approach to sex was rather direct, prosaic, and practical.
Summing up, one may say that the religions of both Greece and Rome allowed for the full expression of every human sexual potential. The contrast to our modern religious beliefs is striking. However, perhaps the greatest difference between the ancient and modern attitudes is this: In the ancient world the emphasis was put on the sexual desire itself, not on its object. Thus, men and women were loved not so much because they were desirable in themselves, but because the love felt for them made them appear desirable. Love was a driving force which originated in the lover. It was directed towards others, but its strength or worth never depended on their reactions. This view was well expressed in the Greek saying: "The god of love dwells in the lover, not in the beloved." In short, it was more the god of love himself who was worshipped in every sexual act than the sexual partner.
Because of their religious glorification of physical love, the ancient Greeks and Romans generally had little admiration for people who remained sexually abstinent. It was only in the later Hellenistic period (about the time of Christ) that certain ascetic philosophers found any wider following. These philosophers began to proclaim a conflict between the mortal body and the immortal soul and renounced all material possessions as well as sensual pleasures for the sake of "purity" and "virtue". It is not entirely clear why this new asceticism suddenly became so popular. Quite obviously, however, it had great appeal for the early Christian thinkers.
Ancient Israel
The history, custom's, laws, and religious beliefs of ancient Israel are carefully and extensively recorded in the Bible. Thus, in most Western countries where the Bible is still widely read, the general population knows more about the Israelites than about any other ancient people. Under these circumstances, we can restrict ourselves here to a very brief sketch.
In contrast to their polytheistic neighbors, the Israelites believed in only one God, Yahweh, the creator and ruler of the world. He had chosen them as his people and given them his law through Moses. Therefore they felt obliged to live according to his commandments and to reject all other laws and foreign influences.
For the people of Israel the main purpose of sex was procreation. Men and women had the duty to "be fruitful and multiply" (Genesis 1; 28), and there was no greater blessing than a large family. Therefore, when Yahweh decided to reward Abraham, he told him: "I will indeed bless you, and I will multiply your descendants as the stars of the heavens and as the sand which is on the seashore" (Genesis 22; 17). By the same token, sexual abstinence was not only offensive in the eyes of the Lord, but also betrayed an anti-social attitude. As a matter of fact, a person who chose not to have children was regarded as little better than one who shed blood.
Because of their great concern with fertility, the ancient Israelites regarded the male sex organs as inviolate and almost sacred. For example, when Abraham sent his servant out to seek a suitable wife for his son Isaak, he asked him to take a solemn oath. The servant then put his hand under Abraham's "thigh" (euphemism for sex organs) and swore to God that he would not lead his son to marry a Gentile (Genesis 24; 2-4). [This is similar to the ancient Roman practice of touching one's testicles while taking an oath. In fact, the very word "testicle" is the diminutive form of Latin "testis", meaning "witness" for the truth. The same word is, of course, also the root of the English verb "to testify".] The sex organs also warranted special protection. If a woman tried to help her husband in a quarrel with another man by grabbing this man's penis or testicles, she had her hand cut off (Deuteronomy 25; 11-12). Sexually mutilated men were excluded from the congregation.
Various biblical passages (among them the sexually explicit "Song of Songs") make it quite clear that the Israelites thought very highly of sexual pleasure. Sex was considered a normal part of a healthy life, and it was a virtue to enjoy it. In accordance with this view, newlywed couples were entitled to an extended honeymoon: "When a man is newly married, he shall not go out with the army or be charged with any business; he shall be free at home for a year, to be happy with his wife whom he has taken" (Deuteronomy 24; 5).
On the other hand, neither men nor women were encouraged to display their nude bodies. Nudity was generally regarded as shameful and embarrassing. For instance, an adulterous woman was publicly stripped naked by her husband as an act of humiliation. Numerous customs and regulations tried to prevent even the involuntary exposure of sex organs. (In later times a Jew who exercised in a Greek gymnasium was assumed to have betrayed his faith.)
Nevertheless, it would be wrong to assume that the ancient Israelites were prudish or puritanical. In most respects their approach to sex was very positive. However, because of their strong emphasis on reproduction, coitus was the only acceptable form of sexual expression. All non-reproductive sex (including sexual self-stimulation) was considered "unnatural" because contrary to the will of God. Homosexual intercourse and sexual contact with animals were even punished by death (Leviticus 20; 13 and 15).
It is important to remember the religious basis of this sexual intolerance. At a time when the Israelites fought for their national and religious survival, they were surrounded by peoples who worshipped numerous gods and idols, and who usually made all types of sexual activity part of that worship. Indeed, we know from the Book of Kings and from the denunciations of the prophets that, at times, even the Israelites themselves had male and female prostitutes attached to the temple in Jerusalem and to various local shrines. However, for the sake of monotheistic purity, this "sacred prostitution", along with all other polytheistic customs, was eventually eliminated from the nation's life. Thus, people began to associate nonreproductive sex with idolatry and to treat it as a major religious offense.
Still, within the relatively narrow framework of marital coitus, sexual pleasure remained well recognized and was actually encouraged.
ADAM AND EVE COVERING THEIR NAKEDNESS
(14th-century German painting)
The Bible tells us that, after having disobeyed God, the first human beings discovered their nakedness and were ashamed. As a punishment for their sin, they were then driven from the Garden of Eden. Thus, among the ancient Israelites, nudity was not tolerated, and to be stripped naked in public was the ultimate humiliation.
It was only late in Israel's history (about the time of Jesus) that certain peripheral and extremist sects, such as the Essenes, developed strictly ascetic ideals. This sexual asceticism was never representative of Jewish culture as a whole.
The Catholic Church
At the time of Jesus Christ various ascetic religious movements had begun to flourish in the Roman Empire. There were not only extremist Jewish sects (such as the Essenes) which renounced all sexual pleasure, but also many pagan cults which declared the human body to be "impure" and which demanded that it be neglected, mistreated, or even starved for the sake of the "pure" soul. Jesus himself, however, does not seem to have subscribed to any such notions, but rather followed the more traditional, sexually positive, Jewish teachings. Actually, very little is known about his views on specific sexual issues. He remained a chaste celibate himself, but never praised or condemned the sexual urge as such. In practice, his attitude towards sexual outcasts was compassionate and forgiving (Luke 7; 36-50, John 8; 1-11).
Human sexuality is discussed in more detail by Paul, one of the earliest and most energetic Christian missionaries. Paul, who had not been among Jesus's personal disciples, was apparently influenced by some of the more negative sexual philosophies of his time. His strong condemnation of homosexual behavior can, of course, still be explained as traditionally Jewish (Rom. 1; 26-27, I Cor. 7; 38). However, he goes far beyond this tradition when he sees sexual desire itself as a rather deplorable weakness. Indeed, in clear opposition to Jewish doctrine, he declares celibacy to be superior to marriage (I Cor. 7; 8-9, I Cor. 7; 38).
This ascetic approach to sex was soon developed further by stern and somber Christian scholars, such as Tertullian, Jerome, and Augustine. All of these so-called "Fathers of the Church" had a very low opinion of sensual pleasure. Especially Augustine, a brilliant thinker and writer, proved to be quite influential. He was born and died in Northern Africa, but spent his middle years in Italy where his thinking was shaped by certain then-fashionable ascetic beliefs and philosophies. During his youth and early manhood he had led a relatively active sex life, but after his conversion to Christianity he came to see sex as shameful and degrading. In his opinion, the involuntary bodily responses during sexual intercourse were embarrassing signs of enslavement to the flesh. They proved that human beings were not masters of their own bodies as God had intended them to be. Instead, the sin of Adam and Eve had robbed them and all their descendants of the proper self-control, and thus they were given over to "concupiscence"—lustful desire which seeks self-satisfaction at all cost. A "new" Christian life therefore demanded the strict repression of such lust. Marriage in itself was not evil, because it allowed the spouses to employ their base desires in the noble service of procreation. Still, somehow every sexual act, even between husband and wife, remained tainted, and every child born as a result of such an act needed the cleansing power of baptism. Even then the unfortunate disposition towards lust, inherited from Adam and Eve, remained.
Augustine's association of sex with original sin and guilt had a lasting and unfortunate effect on later Christian thinkers. It has to be understood, however, that the entire intellectual and moral climate of the early church was inimical to any cultivation of the senses. The first Christians believed that the end of the world was imminent, and even when it failed to arrive their general outlook on life remained gloomy and ascetic. Virginity, total abstinence, and the systematic neglect of the body were considered marks of virtue. Monks and hermits were praised and admired for their relentless fasting and their fight against sexual temptation. Even self-castration was considered a moral act. At the same time, intolerance and religious fanaticism scaled new heights. When Christianity finally became the official religion of the Roman empire, the emperors passed strict laws prohibiting certain sexual acts as relics of paganism. Especially homosexuals and other "deviants" from Christian sexual morality were singled out as capital offenders and publicly burned to death. Thus, shortly after the Christians had escaped their own persecution, they began the persecution of others. (See also "Sex and the Law—Historical Background.")
As the Christian church spread and flourished throughout Europe, this early extreme asceticism gave way to a more lenient attitude. Indeed, many members of the clergy themselves married and had families, a custom which prevailed well into the Middle Ages, when it was officially abolished by church leaders. In the course of time, the jurisdiction over sexual offenses shifted away from secular to ecclesiastical courts which now assumed the right to try all matters related to the salvation of souls. (In certain cases, however, the defendant's body was handed over to government authorities for punishment.)
Medieval church policy towards sexual behavior is well documented in so-called penitentials, i.e., books written for the guidance of confessors and providing long lists of sins together with the appropriate penance. In general, these penitentials still show little tolerance of "deviant" sexual behavior or even of a vigorous "normal" marital sex life. It was only later, when Thomas Aquinas and his followers gained a wider influence in the church, that its sexual policies became somewhat more balanced and realistic.
Thomas, the greatest medieval theologian, made a serious effort to approach the subject of sex in a systematic and logical manner. His basic assumption was this: It is the "nature" of human sexual intercourse to lead to the procreation of children. Therefore, any sexual activity that does not serve this ultimate end is "unnatural", i.e., contrary to the will of God and sinful.
All the rest of Thomas's sexual philosophy simply follows from this premise. "Natural" sexual activity takes place only for the "right" purpose, with the "right" partner, and in the "right" way (i.e., for the purpose of procreation, with the marriage partner, and by means of coitus). Sexual acts are "unnatural" and sinful to the degree to which they deviate from this triple moral standard. The greatest offense against nature is committed when the wrong purpose (for example mere sexual pleasure) is sought with the wrong partner (for example a partner of the same sex) in the wrong way (for example by means of oral or anal intercourse). Similarly, sexual contact with animals and sexual self-stimulation are very grave sins. Somewhat less sinful is sex with a wrong partner of the opposite sex, such as in rape, adultery, and incest. By the same token, simple "natural" fornication is only a minor transgression as long as it does not lead to pregnancy. In this latter case, however, it becomes a serious "unnatural" act, because the child will be illegitimate and will lack a father's care and attention.
Unlike Augustine before him, Thomas did not see the "right" sexual activity, i.e., marital coitus, as tainted by concupiscence. He merely regretted that it involved a loss of rational control. Thus, generally speaking, Thomas had a moderating influence on theological thinking about sex. Nevertheless, even for him sexual abstinence remained morally superior to marriage.
Thomas's insistence on sexual conformity with "nature" or, in other words, his belief in a so-called "natural law" has continued to determine Catholic doctrine to this very day. To be sure, in specific instances the church has modified its medieval views on sex. Especially in our century a certain liberalization has begun to set in. Still, on the whole, Catholics still cling to the same basic assumptions which define most actual human sexual behavior as deviant. Sexual self-stimulation, non-marital heterosexual intercourse, homosexual intercourse, and sexual contact with animals are still considered "unnatural" and sinful in various degrees. Artificial insemination, sterilization, abortion, and most forms of contraception are also rejected. (Only the so-called rhythm method is permissible under certain conditions.) Finally, it remains to be said that the church does not recognize divorces. In sum, with regard to sex the Catholic faith is still one of the most restrictive world religions.
The Protestant Churches
The Protestant Reformation of the 16th century divided the once unified church of Western Europe and gave birth to numerous new Christian churches, sects, and movements, a development which continues to this day.
The first important Protestant leaders, Luther and Calvin, rejected the supremacy of the pope and various other Catholic doctrines, but in regard to sex they retained most of the then traditional attitudes. However, they did attack the custom of clerical celibacy and the glorification of sexual abstinence. Luther, a former monk, himself set an example and married a former nun, and Calvin also felt obliged to marry in order to lead a more regular and productive life. Both considered women to be necessary, if subservient, companions for men. Calvin in particular saw the role of wife as that of a lifelong close associate of the husband. She was to be more than just a bearer of his children. By the same token, marriage was not simply a means of producing and educating offspring, but a social institution for the mutual benefit of the partners. Sexual pleasure in marriage was therefore moral and proper, provided it did not degenerate into excessive passion or sheer lust.
Calvin's theology had a great influence on the English Puritans for whom the Reformation under Henry VIII had not gone far enough and who eventually emigrated in large numbers to the new English colonies on the American east coast. In view of the harsh conditions under which they had to survive, the Puritans placed a very high value on the integrity of family life.
MADONNA AND CHILD
(Painting by Fouquet, 15th century)
The paradoxical image of the virgin mother Mary, which combines the ideals of chastity and procreation, is perhaps the most fitting symbol of the medieval Catholic view of sex.
Thus, while they had nothing against sex as such, they were extremely intolerant of any sexual activity outside of marriage. Premarital and extramarital sex was severely punished, as was any form of homosexual behavior or sexual contact with animals. In order to fight temptation, the Puritans also developed strict codes for dress and public behavior. Any seductive appeal to the senses was to be avoided. Under the circumstances, it is hardly surprising that their way of life soon became drab, joyless, and oppressive. Occasional outbursts of mass hysteria, such as in the Salem witch trials, undoubtedly had sexual overtones and prove that the Puritan sexual morality had become unrealistic, fanatical, and destructive. Fortunately, in the following centuries this rigid culture became increasingly diluted by the growing tide of new immigrants with a more liberal heritage. Nevertheless, Puritan attitudes continued to pervade much of American criminal law, especially in the state penal
A DIVINE COMMANDMENT
FOR HUSBANDS AND WIVES
(17th-century American woodcut)
The first Protestants rejected the traditional celibacy of priests, monks, and nuns, encouraging everyone to get married. Indeed, the English and American Puritans reverted to the sexual laws of the Old Testament confirming reproduction as the main marital duty and the only legitimate purpose of sex.
codes, (See "Sex and the Law—Historical Background".)
In the meantime, the various European Protestant churches had, on their part, also come under the influence of new ascetic philosophies. Especially in the second half of the 19th century, during the reign of the English Queen Victoria, an unprecedented prudery swept most Western nations and deeply affected Christian thinking about sex. Originally, this prudery had grown largely outside the church where it was promoted by physicians, psychiatrists, and educators. However, after some initial reluctance most clergymen also rallied to its cause. Indeed, when science finally freed itself from its narrow sexual views, many church leaders remained unable to do likewise. For them, Victorian pseudo-scientific theories had become part of their religious faith. (See also "Sex and Psychiatry—Historical Background".)
Today the many different Protestant churches present a rather varied picture in regard to their teachings on sex. On the one hand, there are fundamentalist churches which retain the strictest possible standards and condemn all sexual activity except marital coitus as sinful. Some of these churches even frown on fashionable clothing, facial make-up, dancing, kissing, embracing, or any other close physical contact between unmarried partners. On the other hand, some modern churches openly advocate complete sexual fulfillment for everyone, regardless of marital status or sexual orientation. Indeed, some churches today not only encourage women to be ministers, but also perform marriage ceremonies between partners of the same sex. Recently some major Protestant denominations, such as the United Church of Christ and the Episcopal Church, have ordained their first openly homosexual clergy.
At present, most of the larger Protestant churches take something of a middle position between these extremes. Many of them recognize the human sexual urge as a gift from God which serves not only the purpose of procreation, but also that of personal enrichment while creating a strong physical and spiritual bond between marriage partners. Noncoital forms of sexual intercourse, contraception, and sterilization can therefore be moral and, under certain conditions, may even be required. Unhappy marriages can be dissolved by divorce. Premarital sex has to be judged according to the circumstances; it is not sinful in itself. In general, people who deviate from traditional sexual norms must be met with compassion and understanding. It is immoral to persecute them in any way as long as they do not harm others. Thus, the governing board of the American National Council of Churches has now officially demanded an end to such persecution. The board also favors full civil rights for all citizens, regardless of their affectional or sexual preference.
Cross-cultural Perspectives
Just as in our own Western, Judeo-Christian civilization, people in other cultures have also found their sexual attitudes influenced by their religious beliefs. These attitudes may range from almost complete sexual freedom to strict asceticism. Indeed, some Eastern religions share certain negative Western approaches to sex. Generally speaking, however, one may say that non-Westerners have always allowed for a greater variety of sexual expression than we have done in the past. Thus, in Africa and Asia the persecution of sexual "deviants" has rarely been as fanatical as in Europe and America. As the scope of the present book does not permit a thorough and detailed discussion, a few selected examples of non-Western religions may serve as illustrations.
Islam
Islam, which dates back to the early 7th century A.D., is the youngest of the great world religions. Its founder, Mohammed, was greatly influenced by Jewish and, to a lesser extent, Christian beliefs, and thus it is not surprising to find that the Koran—the Holy Book of Islam—expresses many moral views that are similar to those of the Judeo-Christian tradition. In addition to the Koran, Moslems recognize the moral authority of the Sharia, a legal code developed after Mohammed's death. (The role of the Sharia is comparable to that of the Talmud in Judaism.)
Islam is not an ascetic faith, permitting as it does temporary marriages (mut'ah marriages), some forms of polygamy, and ready divorces. There is no doctrine of original sin or "concupiscence", although certain specific acts are considered sinful. Thus, contraception and abortion have usually been prohibited in Moslem countries which desired a population increase. Furthermore, due to certain historical and cultural traditions (especially in Arabia and Northern Africa), adultery and premarital sex among Moslem women have often been severely punished. Otherwise, however, the Moslem attitude towards sexual "deviance" is comparatively lenient. It is true that the Koran repeats the biblical story of Sodom and Gomorrah and seems to condemn homosexual behavior (Koran XXVI 165-166, XXVII 54-58, XXIX 28-29, LIV 37-38). Indeed, at certain times and in certain places Moslems have demanded that homosexual offenders be put to death. However, in general such persecutions have been quite rare. In actual practice, most Islamic societies have always tolerated homosexual and ambisexual conduct. Where antihomosexual laws were in force, they were of little consequence, since, according to Mohammed, at least two witnesses were required for conviction. It seems, therefore, that consensual sexual behavior suffered few restrictions as long as it remained private. In sum, with regard to sex, the faith of Islam takes a realistic and rather liberal attitude, allowing for a considerable range of human sexual expression.
Hinduism
Hinduism, one of the world's oldest living religions, has no historical founder. Its earliest teachings, which were laid down at about 1000 B.C. in four holy texts called Vedas, are believed to have been revealed to wise men who lived along the banks of the Ganges and Indus rivers. (The word Hindu comes from the Persian name for Indus.) Over the centuries, several other holy books were added, among them the Upanishads, the Laws of Manu, the Bhagavad Gita, and epics such as the Mahabharata and the Ramayana.
These books vary greatly in content, style, and purpose, although in one form or another they support the central assumption of Hinduism—the belief in a Supreme Being, a Highest Spirit or World Soul with which all other souls are ultimately to be united. Since this goal cannot be achieved in one lifetime, reincarnation or transmigrations of the soul are necessary. Man's deeds in one life will determine his state in the next. However, even the lowliest creature has a soul and therefore deserves to be revered.
In practical terms, Hinduism has, on the one hand, given rise to ascetic practices among holy men and other devout persons who rejected all physical pleasure and comfort as an obstacle to the eventual union with the Supreme Perfect Being. On the other hand, there have also been religious movements which celebrated sexual pleasure in all its forms as a path towards the Divine. Many famous and sexually explicit works of art and architecture testify to this belief. Indeed, one of the best known early sex manuals, the Kamasutra {written in the 2nd century B.C.), treats sexual intercourse as a means of spiritual enrichment and thus is a legitimate expression of Hindu culture. At times, this culture also included polygamy and "sacred prostitution" in temples. Phallic worship, in the form of veneration for the "lingam", an artistic representation of the penis, continues to this day. We know that in India the condemnation and actual persecution of sexual "deviants" has never been long-lasting or severe. Exceptions were adultery and rape. Homosexual acts were usually also abhorred, although in many places groups of homosexual prostitutes called Hijras were allowed to practice openly.
THE SENSUAL PLEASURES OF PARADISE
(14th-century Turkish miniature)
The religion of Islam never demanded the suppression of sexual interests from its followers. Thus, Islamic literature and art were often highly erotic. The picture shown here depicts the happy afterlife which awaits the righteous after their death when they will sit in shady gardens being served by beautiful heavenly girls (houris).
Under the circumstances it is difficult to assess the general influence of Hinduism on sexual attitudes. Over its long history, many different and often contradictory philosophies have dominated different segments of Hindu culture. On the whole, however, Hindus seem to have enjoyed a more positive approach to sex than members of most other world religions.
Buddhism
The principles of Buddhism originated in the 6th century B.C. in Nepal with Siddharta Gautama who was later called Buddha (the Enlightened). Gautama became convinced that human suffering is caused by desire and that man must therefore free himself from his desires (including sexual desires) by a righteous, loving, and spiritual life. A "Noble Eightfold Path" of right belief, right aspiration, right speech, right action, right livelihood, right effort, right thought, and right meditation will lead to "nirvana", i.e., the supreme state of mind, the perfect insight, peace without passion.
As Gautama's moral doctrine spread all over East Asia, his followers divided into two major groups, of which one, the Hinayana (Small Vehicle), maintained his simple and demanding rules of discipline. The other group called Mahayana (Larger Vehicle) greatly expanded on his teachings, absorbing various local religious beliefs, and developing detailed doctrines about heaven, hell, and salvation. Within the two major groups there are numerous subgroups and sects, Gautama's original teachings were not religious in the usual sense of the word, as they said nothing about a Supreme Being or Cod or even about many minor gods. Instead, he simply pointed the way towards enlightenment through proper living. Self-knowledge, discipline, and kindness led to the gradual liberation from desire and finally to the perfect stillness of nirvana. It was only after Gautama's death that various theologies and mythologies attached themselves to his message. This process, in turn, produced different religious movements and groups which can be compared to churches in the Western sense. However, there was never a specific single sexual dogma. Buddhist attitudes toward sexual behavior varied with local culture and custom. In general, they were positive, practical, and humane. Sexual activity between consenting partners was usually considered a private matter. The persecution of sexual "deviants" was never prevalent in Asian countries. Masturbation, noncoital forms of heterosexual intercourse, and homosexual behavior may, at times, have been ridiculed or discouraged, but did not lead to official harassment. Prostitution often flourished openly. In some cases, it was seen as a useful institution or was even regarded as a respectable profession. Before they were affected by Western sexual attitudes, the Buddhist societies of East Asia were sexually very tolerant. Indeed, a great deal of this tolerance has remained even today.
American Indian Religions
The different native peoples of America held widely different religious beliefs and also differed in their sexual attitudes. It is obvious, for example, that the ancient high civilizations of South and Central America had only little in common with the much simpler cultures in North America, in spite of the fact that their European discoverers mistakenly referred to all of them as "Indian". (America was at first not recognized as a separate continent, but regarded as part of India.) Nevertheless, it is possible to make at least some general observations about the American native religions and their view of human sexuality.
Most American Indians believed in various major and minor gods or goddesses and, in some instances, in bisexual or hermaphroditic deities. Some Indian peoples prayed to a Male Supreme Being, others to a Great Earth Mother or other female figure. Among those who lived by farming, fertility rites were common, although these rites rarely had a sexual character. However, sex did play a part in some other ceremonies. Indians in Peru often buried their dead with sexually explicit clay figures and pottery depicting almost every conceivable sexual act. There also seems to have existed some sort of institutionalized "sacred" homosexuality. (On the other hand, in some Central American cultures homosexual behavior seems to have been severely condemned, at least for members of the lower social classes.) While most American Indians observed certain strict sexual taboos against incest and sexual intercourse with a menstruating woman, there was no religious emphasis on chastity. Temporary sexual abstinence was required on special occasions. Childhood sex play was viewed with tolerance. Since marriage took place at an early age, adolescents also encountered little sexual frustration. Single males often enjoyed sexual privileges with the wives of their brothers or those of other male relatives. A married male guest of the family was sometimes granted similar privileges by the host. Sexual "deviance" was usually respected as the manifestation of a person's particular "nature" or "call". For example, a boy who displayed feminine behavior was not "corrected", but allowed to live as a woman and even to become the "wife" of another man. Thus, transsexuals and hermaphrodites encountered few social problems. In sum, it can be said that virtually all American Indian cultures were extremely broadminded in sexual matters. Sexual pleasure was considered a necessary part of life and was therefore everybody's right.
Ancient Polynesian Religions
Before their contact with Western civilization, the Polynesian islanders were among the sexually least inhibited people on earth. While different Polynesian cultures developed different religious beliefs and social customs, none of them ever regarded sex as evil, shameful, or dirty. On the contrary, their gods, goddesses, and priests themselves were models of sexual vigor. Sensual pleasure and physical beauty were valued very highly. Dancing, singing, athletic competitions, beauty contests, and sexual exhibitions were regular features of Polynesian social life. Indeed, in Tahiti there was a special religious order called the Arioi society whose members traveled from island to island as professional celebrants and entertainers giving public sexual performances.
Polynesian children were encouraged from an early age to be sexually active,
DOUBLE-SEXED ANCESTOR FIGURE
(Painted sculpture from Melanesia)
Many of the sexually uninhibited Pacific islanders expressed their worship of the unifying life-force by creating ancestral figures which show both male and female characteristics.
and they usually also were free to observe adult sexual activity either at public festivities or in the home. (Sexual contact between young children and adults was condemned, however, and seems to have been virtually non-existent.) There were no special puberty rites, but adolescents were allowed to spend several carefree and sexually active years in youth gangs which provided their communities with musical, athletic, and sexual entertainment. Premarital pregnancies were welcomed as signs of fertility and increased a girl's chances of finding a husband. Furthermore, since the extended Polynesian family system easily absorbed additional children, there was never a question of "illegitimacy". Marriages were usually monogamous. (Only some of the highest chiefs had several wives.) However, a marriage was easily dissolved by mutual agreement, and remarriage was just as simple. It also must be understood that Polynesian monogamy was not entirely exclusive, since wives were often expected to grant sexual privileges to the male relatives and house guests of their husbands.
Given the generally tolerant sexual attitude of Polynesians, it is not surprising to find that homosexual and ambisexual activity also flourished openly in their culture and was accepted as natural. Transsexuals were allowed to live according to their preference, and thus certain men simply adopted the role of women. In short, under the circumstances it is questionable whether the term "sexual deviance" has any meaning if applied to ancient Polynesia. To be sure, there were some strong sexual taboos (the very word "taboo" is of Polynesian origin), but they had to do more with class restrictions than with sexual acts as such. There were also firm rules concerning the choice of a marriage partner, but again, they hardly prevented anyone's sexual fulfillment. Various taboos against incest may also be mentioned in this context, although even here exceptions are provided by Hawaii and Rarotonga where brothers and sisters of royal families often married each other. (This practice apparently had no negative effects.) In conclusion one might say that the ancient Polynesian cultures offer perhaps the best proof that a realistic, positive, and humane approach to sex can work and be socially productive.
(NOTE: Some of the information in the preceding section has been gathered from various articles in the Encyclopedia of Sexual Behavior, edited by Albert Ellis and Maurice Abarbanel, New York: Hawthorn, 1967, which is therefore recommended for further reading. See especially William Graham Cole, "Protestantism and Sex"; Bengt Danielsson, "Sex Life in Polynesia"; Rabbi Samuel Glasner, "Judaism and Sex"; Samuel Z. Klausner, "Sex Life in Islam"; Wu Lien-Teh, "Sex Life in the Orient"; Jelal M. Shah, "Sex Life in India and Pakistan"; Fred W. Voget, "Sex Life of the American Indians"; Robert Wood, "Sex Life in Ancient Civilizations".)
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